Chu Nom, Ancienne Ecriture du Vietnam
Formation Historique
Un mouvement d��mancipation de l�emprise culturelle chinoise
Võ Thu Tinh
Depuis les premiers si�cles de notre �re jusqu'� ce jour, le Vietnam a connu trois sortes d'�criture :
1. Le chu H�n ou chu nho (�criture des Han ou �criture des lettr�s) : C'est l��criture de la
langue chinoise, impos�e au peuple vietnamien par les conqu�rants chinois comme langue officielle. A cette �criture en
caract�res chinois correspond une lecture en sino-vietnamien, c'est-�-dire dans une prononciation directement d�riv�e du
chinois du X� si�cle. Plus tard, durant la p�riode de pr�s de mille ans d'ind�pendance (938-1814), et m�me pendant les
trente premi�res ann�es de la domination fran�aise (1884-1917), les rois vietnamiens continuent � adopter le chu nho
comme �criture officielle.
2. Le chu n�m (�criture du Vietnam, n�m = nam) que certains auteurs d�nomment "�criture
d�motique", c'est-�-dire �criture du peuple. Cette �criture, compos�e � partir des �l�ments et des principes des caract�res
chinois, fut invent�e par des lettr�s vers le XIII� si�cle pour �crire la langue parl�e du peuple vietnamien.
3. Le chu qu�c ngu (�criture nationale) cr�� par les missionnaires occidentaux venus pr�cher la
religion catholique au Vietnam vers le XVIII� si�cle, est un syst�me de repr�sentation phon�tique de la langue vietnamienne
au moyen de l'alphabet latin. A partir de 1917, sous l'impulsion des autorit�s fran�aises, le chu qu�c ngu et le vietnamien
deviennent, � juste titre, l'�criture et la langue officielles du Vietnam.
Tandis que le chu nho sert � �crire les phrases chinoiscs, le chu n�m et le chu qu�c ngu enregistrent
la langue parl�e du peuple vietnamien. On est amen� � conclure que seuls le chu n�m et le chu qu�c ngu sont
les vraies �critures nationales du Vietnam. En effet, selon une d�finition classique, pour qu'il y ait �criture, "il faut un
ensemble de signes qui poss�de un sens �tabli � l'avance par une communaut� et � son usage", et "il faut ensuite que ces
signes permettent d'enregistrer et de reproduire une phrase parl�e." (J. F�vrier).
Aux origines du Chu N�m: les caract�res chinois
Pour une meilleure compr�hension de la formation du chu n�m, il est donc indispensable d'avoir un aper�u
g�n�ral des principes des caract�res chinois. Les lexicographes r�partissent ces caract�res en six classes (liu shu, en
sino-vietnamien: luc thu). Selon la th�orie traditionnelle, les caract�res primitifs �taient des images et des symboles, toutes
les autres classes se sont d�velopp�es � partir de ces caract�res primitifs, par composition ou par d�rivation.
1. Les images (xiang xing, en svn : tuong hinh) repr�sentent des objets. Par exemple, les
caract�res shan et mu passent pour repr�senter la montagne et l'arbre.
2. Les symboles (zhi shi, en svn : chi su) repr�sentent des id�es abstraites, des actions. Par
exemple, le caract�re shang (en haut, monter) fait d'une verticale et d'une oblique au-dessus d'une horizontale,
s'oppose au caract�re xia (en bas, descendre) fait d'une verticale et d'une petite oblique au-dessus d'une horizontale.
3. L'agr�gat logique (hui y, en svn : hoi y) est une combinaison de deux composants concourant � indiquer
le sens, � exprimer une id�e nouvelle. Par exemple, le caract�re ming (chanter) est compos� de niao (oiseau) et
de kou (bouche) : "oiseau" et "bouche" sugg�rent l'id�e de chanter.
4. Les phonogrammes (xieng sheng, en svn : tuong thanh) sont form�s d'un �l�ment pris phon�tiquement
et d'un autre �l�ment indiquant en gros l'ordre d'id�e auquel le mot se rapporte. Le premier �l�ment est la "phon�tique", le
second est la "cl�". Par exemple, le caract�re ling (sonnette) est compos� de la phon�tique linh (commander) et de la
cl� j�n (m�tal). La phon�tique donne sa prononciation linh au mot ; la cl� "m�tal" indique la nature de la
sonnette qui est faite en m�tal.
5. Le retournement des caract�res (jia jie, en svn : chuyen chu). Ce proc�d� consiste � ajouter, enlever
ou d�placer certains traits d'un caract�re existant pour obtenir un caract�re d�riv�. Par exemple, au caract�re xi�o (petit)
on ajoute un trait jet� descendant, et on obtient un autre caract�re sh�o qui signifie "peu nombreux, provisoire".
6. Les faux emprunts (j�� j��, en svn : gia t�). Ce sont des caract�res d�riv�s obtenus par la modification
de la prononciation des caract�res existants. Par exemple, le caract�re xi�ng (mine, air) se prononce au 4� ton, et si on le
prononce au 1er ton, on obtiendra un caract�re d�riv� xi�ng qui signifie "mutuellement, r�ciproquement".
Les r�gles d'invention du chu n�m
A partir des �l�ments et des principes de l'�criture chinoise, nos lettr�s ont invent� le chu n�m pour �crire la langue
vietnamienne. Ils ont adopt� des proc�d�s essentiellement fond�s sur la phon�tique : les faux emprunts et les phonogrammes.
A. Les faux emprunts (gia t�)
1. Transcrire des termes d'importation chinoise
Pour transcrire les termes emprunt�s du chinois (essentiellement des termes religieux, litt�raires, administratifs, techniques...
tr�s nombreux dans le lexique vietnamien), on garde � la fois la graphie chinoise et la prononciation sino-vietnamienne
du mot chinois emprunt�. Par exemple, chu toa (pr�sider), dai l� (boulevard), minh bach (clair),
to�n hoc (math�matiques).
2. Transcrire des mots proprement vi�tnamiens
D'une mani�re g�n�rale, on importe la forme �crite du chinois, et on garde la forme orale (prononciation) du mot
vietnamien � transcrire.
(a) Emprunter le caract�re d'un mot chinois homophone du mot vietnamien qu'on veut transcrire, et le lire suivant
la prononciation du mot vietnamien (qui est en m�me temps la prononciation sino-vi�tnamienne du mot chinois).
Par exemple. on �crit le caract�re chinois chi (pronom personnel compl�ment d'objet direct) pour transcrire le mot
vietnamien chi (quoi) ; le caract�re chinois qua (une ancienne arme) pour transcrire le mot vietnamien qua (traverser).
(b) Emprunter le caract�re d'un mot chinois ayant une prononciation � peu pr�s identique � celui du mot vietnamien
qu'on veut transcrire, et le lire suivant la prononciation du mot vietnamien. Par exemple, on �crit le caract�re chinois
bi�t (s�par�) pour transcrire le mot vietnamien bi�t (conna�tre) , le caract�re chinois nu (femme) pour
transcrire le mot vietnamien nua (encore).
(c) Emprunter le caract�re d'un mot chinois synonyme du mot vietnamien qu'on veut transcrire, et adopter
la prononciation du mot vietnamien. C'est en quelque sorte la lecture d'un mot chinois en vi�tnamien, par le truchement
d'une traduction simultan�e (tout comme dans une pratique bien connue au Japon qui consiste � lire un. texte chinois en le
traduisant instantan�ment en japonais).
Par exemple, on �crit le caract�re chinois ky
B. Les phonogrammes (h�i thanh)
Nous savons que les caract�res de cette classe sont form�s de deux �l�ments : la phon�tique qui indique la prononciation, et la cl� qui pr�cise le sens du mot. Par exemple, le caract�re c�t (sable) est form� par deux caract�res chinois : la phon�tique c�t (propice) et la cl� th� (terre). La phon�tique donne la prononciation c�t au mot, et la cl� "terre" indique en gros la nature � laquelle le mot (sable) se rapporte.
C. Les agr�gats logiques (h�i �)
Ce sont des caract�res form�s de deux composants concourant tous � indiquer le sens. Par exemple, le caract�re tr�m (chef) est form� de deux caract�res chinois : nh�n (homme) et thuong (au-dessus). "Homme" et "au-dessus" �voquent l'id�e de "chef�.
On a remarqu� que dans les textes et inscriptions en chu n�m en notre possession jusqu'� ce jour, les compos�s s�mantiques sont extr�mement rares. Enfin, il existe des signes sp�cifiques � ajouter � c�t� d'un caract�re chu n�m pour avertir les lecteurs qu'il faut modifier la prononciation du mot de fa�on � ce qu'elle soit conforme aux tons et aux flexions de la langue vietnamienne :
- soit � droite du caract�re, comme le d�u c� (signe sp�cificatif) qui s'�crit 
ou 
, et le
d�u nh�p nh�y (signe clignotant) 
.
Ce dernier, invent� post�rieurement au d�u c�, se retrouve seulement dans les textes et les inscriptions en chu n�m
� partir de la deuxi�me moiti� du XIX� si�cle,
- soit � gauche et en haut du caract�re, comme ce signe qui est une forme r�duite
du caract�re kh�u mais employ� comme signe sp�cifique, non comme une cl�,
Le chu n�m est cr�� principalement selon le principe gia ta, c'est-�-dire le principe des faux emprunts des homophones. Comme il y a beaucoup de mots vietnamiens qui n'ont pas d'homophones en chinois, on doit, en cas �ch�ant, recourir � un des mots chinois ayant une prononciation proche de celle du mot vietnamien � transcrire. Ainsi, un caract�re peut �tre lu de diff�rentes mani�res ; plusieurs caract�res peuvent figurer un m�me mot ; souvent les caract�res chinois utilis�s pour transcrire la phon�tique ne repr�sentent que des sons approchants. D'autre part, les abr�viations des caract�res ne sont pas faciles � interpr�ter et parfois, pour un m�me mot, deux auteurs �crivent diff�remment, il n'y a aucune institution pour unifier l'orthographe du chu n�m, afin de permettre aux Vietnamiens d'�crire et de lire de la m�me fa�on. Toutefois, du point de vue linguistique, le chu n�m peut �tre utile pour la langue vietnamienne. Les �l�ments s�mantiques (les composants d�nomm�s "cl�") aident � d�terminer les sens des homophones en quoc ngu. Le son nam, par exemple, s'�crit en quoc ngu par trois lettres N-A-M, et signifie ou "cinq" ou "ann�e" ; mais en chu n�m ce son est transcrit de deux mani�res diff�rentes suivant le sens :
(1) la cl� ni�n qui signifie "ann�e" + la phon�tique nam (nam),
(2) la cl� ngu qui signifie "cinq" + la phon�tique nam (nam).
On voit facilement que le premier mot "nam" signifie "ann�e" et le deuxi�me "cinq". Dans de nombreux cas le chu n�m permet aussi de distinguer les initiales d (z) de gi, ch de tr, les finales n de ng, c de t, etc.
Histoire
Malgr� l'indiff�rence voire le d�dain que nos lettr�s ont affich� � son �gard, le chu n�m , apr�s avoir vu le jour vers le XIV� si�cle, est arriv� � se confirmer au XV� si�cle, et enfin � s'imposer dans la litt�rature nationale � la fin du XVIII� et au XIX� si�cles.
Les premi�res attestations du chu n�m
Nous ne savons pas exactement � quelle �poque remonte la cr�ation du chu n�m. Comme preuve mat�rielle la plus ancienne de l'existence de cette �criture, on a souvent cit� une vingtaine de caract�res n�m repr�sentant les noms de communes vietnamiennes, dans une st�le identifi�e par H. Masp�ro, (B.E.F.E.O., t. XII, no. 1), datant de 1343 (sous le r�gne de Tran Du T�ng), sur la montagne Duc Th�y (province de Ninh Binh). Mais actuellement personne n'a pu retrouver cette st�le, ni l'estompage de ses inscriptions.
En 1970, D�o Duy Anh a signal� l'existence d'une autre st�le plus ancienne que la pr�c�dente, datant de 1210 (sous le r�gne de Ly Cao T�ng), � la pagode de Bao An., au village de Th�p Mi�u de l'ancienne province de Ph�c Y�n (actuellement Vinh Phuc), o� l'on peut lire 21 noms de personnes, de villages, de hameaux en chu n�m. Par ailleurs, sur la foi du Kham Dinh Viet Su Thong Giam Cuong Muc (Annales du Vi�tnam), c'est Nguy�n Thuy�n alias H�n Thuy�n qui, au d�but du XIII� si�cle, a utilis� cette �criture pour la cr�ation litt�raire. Son exemple est suivi par deux autres lettr�s Nguy�n Si C� (seconde moiti� du XIII� si�cle) et Chu Van An (XIV� si�cle). Quelques romans en vers �crits en chu n�m ont �t� attribu�s � la m�me �poque : Tr� Coc (La silure et le crapaud), Trinh Thu (La souris vertueuse),.. Mais � en juger d'apr�s certains d�tails de forme, ils semblent �tre post�rieurs au XIV� si�cle.
La dynastie des Le et le d�veloppement de la litt�rature en chu n�m
C'est au XV� si�cle que le chu n�m commence � se confirmer, notamment avec le Hong Duc Quoc �m Thi Tap (Recueil de po�sies en langue nationale de la p�riode de Hong Duc), et le Quoc Am Thi Tap (Recueil de po�sies en langue nationale) de Nguy�n Trai. Ce dernier est le plus ancien recueil de po�sies en chu n�m qui nous soit conserv�. D'un style simple et naturel, ces po�mes d�notent un profond amour pour le pays, un amer d�go�t � l'�gard de la corruption qui s�vit � la Cour, et un grand attachement pour une vie simple en retrait de la soci�t�. Il faut attendre le XVI� si�cle pour constater des progr�s appr�ciables du chu n�m dans la forme comme dans le fond. Le plus grand po�te en chu n�m de cette �poque est Nguy�n Binh Khi�m. Son recueil Bach Van Quoc Ngu Thi Tap (Po�sies en langue nationale de Bach Van) fait en quelque sorte l'apologie du loisir, de la solitude, de la communion avec la nature, et confesse d'une mani�re plus ou moins voil�e le regret du po�te de ne pouvoir mieux servir son pays.
Avec le XVIII� si�cle, la litt�rature en chu n�m continue � se perfectionner et � se d�velopper dans diff�rents genres : po�sies, contes, et surtout romans en vers (truyen). En po�sie, on peut signaler deux femmes de grand talent : Do�n Thi Di�m, auteur du Chinh Phu Ng�m (Complainte de la femme d'un guerrier), c�l�bre traduction en chu n�m d'une oeuvre en sino-vietnamien de Dang Tran C�n ; et Ho Xu�n Huong, qui se distingue par le r�alisme de ses vers fr�missant de sexualit�, et qui �voquent sans fard mais sans crudit� les secrets du corps f�minin.
On assiste � une floraison de contes, de fables, de chansonnettes (ca dao), d'histoires dr�les (chuyen ti�u l�m), d'oeuvres anonymes de caract�re humoristique et satirique, tels que Trang Quynh (Histoire du Docteur Quynh), Trang Lon (Histoire du Docteur Porc), Tu Xuat (Histoire du Bachelier Xu�t), Ba Giai (Histoire de Monsieur Ba Giai), qui tournent en ridicule les travers de la soci�t� ainsi que les abus dans le syst�me des concours litt�raires de leur temps.
La transition dynastique et l�apog�e de la litt�rature en chu n�m
Mais l'apog�e de la litt�rature en chu n�m n'est vraiment atteinte qu'avec les romans en vers de la fin des Le et du d�but des Nguy�n (fin du XVIII� - d�but du XIX� si�cles). Citons parmi les plus c�l�bres : Hoa T��n (Lettre fleurie) de Nguy�n Huy Tu, am�lior� par Nguy�n Thien ; Kim Van Ki�u (Histoire de Kim, de Van et de Kieu) de Nguy�n Du ; Cung O�n Ng�m Kh�c (Plainte d'une odalisque) de Nguy�n Gia Thi�u ; B�ch C�u Ky Ngo (Rencontre merveilleuse � B�ch Cau), anonyme ; Phan Tran (Histoire de Phan et Tr�n), anonyme ; Nhi Do Mai (Les pruniers refleuris), anonyme ; Luc V�n Ti�n (Histoire de Luc Van Tien) de Nguy�n Dinh Chi�u , Thach Sanh (Le jeune Thach), anonyme ; Nu Tu T�i (La bacheli�re), anonyme...
Aupr�s du Kim Van Kieu de Nguy�n Du, p�lissent toutes les autres oeuvres litt�raires, qu'elles soient �crites en chu n�m ou en quoc ngu. Par la beaut� de ses vers, par son admirable connaissance de la psychologie humaine, par sa peinture vivante et r�aliste de toute une soci�t�, K�m Van Ki�u est devenu un des livres de chevet du peuple vietnamien. C'est l'aboutissement d'une longue �volution de la langue nationale �crite en chu n�m, la synth�se de la po�sie primitive des ca dao (chansonnettes) de m�tre luc bat (six, huit) et de celle plus "savante" qu'on a vu appara�tre dans Chinh Phu Ng�m et dans Hoa Tien.
Dans la premi�re moiti� du XIX� si�cle, un genre de po�sie, le ca tr� (chant po�me compos� par des lettr�s pour �tre chant� par des cantatrices) a �t� r�nov� et perfectionn� par Nguy�n C�ng Tru et Cao Ba Quat. Nguy�n C�ng Tru, homme d'action et po�te, a �t� peu appr�ci� par les rois Minh Menh et Thieu Tri. Sa vie mandarinale mouvement�e a connu des moments de gloire (ministre, g�n�ral) suivis d'humiliantes r�trogradations (simple soldat envoy� � la fronti�re). Aussi dans ses po�mes, surtout dans ses ca tr�, on retrouve un �trange m�lange de sentiments contradictoires : exaltation des exploits extraordinaires des h�ros, et aspiration � s'�chapper des agitations pour se retirer dans des retraites dans la nature, r�solution de se conformer aux normes, aux exigences de la morale confuc�enne, et tendances � profiter de la vie, � s'adonner aux divertissements et aux r�jouissances. Son langage est simple, naturel et souple. Ses expressions sino-vi�tnamiennes sont toujours glos�es par des locutions populaires du parler de chaque jour.
Confuc�en, Nguy�n C�ug Tru clame � travers ses po�mes sa loyaut� envers ses souverains bien que ceux-ci l'aient mal appr�ci�, tandis que Cao B� Quat au nom m�me du confucianisme, s'insurge contre la monarchie d�cadente de son temps avec l'ambition de la r�nover. Il qualifie son insurrection de "c�ch m�nh Thang V�" reprenant le mot de l'historien chinois Tu Ma Thi�n (Sim� Qian) quand celui-ci parle du roi Th�nh Thang (Cheng Shang) qui a renvers� le tyran Kiet (jie) et du roi V� Vuong (Wu Wang) qui a renvers� le tyran Tru (Zhou). Un roi n'est, en effet, qu'un charg� de Mandat C�leste (thi�n m�nh = tian ming) pour s'occuper du bonheur de ses sujets. Cette mission ayant �t� mal accomplie, l'Empereur du ciel la lui enl�vera (c�ch = ge). Le terme �c�ch m�nh" (ge ming, litt�ralement : enlever/mission), qui signifie "La rupture du Mandat C�leste" est employ� aujourd'hui pour traduire le mot fran�ais "r�volution".
Cao B� Qu�t est consid�r� par ses contemporains comme l�un des plus grands po�tes de son temps. On trouve dans ses po�sies une sensibilit� envers la beaut� de la nature, une prise de conscience du caract�re �ph�m�re de la vie humaine, et surtout de la mis�re de son peuple. Il est le po�te de la libation : il n'y a que l'alcool qui puisse l'aider � dissiper sa grande affliction devant les malheurs incontournables de la vie. Ses ca tr� sont d'une puret� et d'un charme incomparables. Si Nguy�n C�ng Tru a eu le m�rite de r�nover le genre du ca tr�, c'est � Cao B� Qu�t que revient la gloire d'avoir fourni � la litt�rature en chu n�m des ca tr� d'une v�ritable perfection.
Autre femme po�te en chu n�m du XIX� si�cle, B� Huyen Thanh Quan, (de son vrai nom Nguy�n Thi Hinh), doit sa c�l�brit� � la puret� et � l'�l�gance de ses vers, � la facture de ses quatrains aussi parfaite que celle des po�sies des Tang, au charme de ses sentiments � peine d�voil�s : vague et discr�te m�lancolie de la solitude, regret attendri � l'�gard de l'�poque glorieuse de la dynastie des Le.
Le temps du d�clin
En 1858, la France d�cide de conqu�rir le Vietnam. Devant la sup�riorit� des armes modernes, la Cour adopte d'abord une politique de concession, pour aboutir enfin � la capitulation. Mais le peuple vietnamien continue � lutter, lutte acharn�e qui durera plus de quarante ans, dirig�e par des lettr�s et aussi par des rois comme H�m Nghi, Th�nh Th�i, et Duy Tan (qui, apr�s leur �chec, seront d�tr�n�s et d�port�s par les autorit�s fran�aises). La r�sistance a inspir� presque la totalit� des �crits en chu n�m de cette �poque. Les auteurs ne recherchent pas l'art pour l'art : la litt�rature constitue pour eux un moyen pour faire appel au patriotisme et au sacrifice pour l'ind�pendance du pays. De tous ces auteurs, lettr�s connus ou auteurs anonymes, une figure dominante se d�tache : Nguy�n Dinh Chieu.
Homme du Sud, Nguy�n D�nh Chieu a assist�, depuis le d�but des hostilit�s jusqu'en 1888, date de sa mort, � tous les �v�nements douloureux de son pays. C'est le mod�le du lettr� patriote qui consacre sa vie � d�fendre, par la plume, la patrie en danger aussi bien que le Dao (voie) du sage, principe fondamental de sa vie propre. Parmi ses nombreuses �uvres en chu n�m, les plus importantes sont : Luc Van Ti�n (Histoire de Luc Van Tien), roman en vers dont le h�ros, en d�pit des vicissitudes de la vie, a tenu � rester attach� fermement aux principes confuc�ens ; Duong T� H� Mau (Duong Tu et H� Mau), long po�me exaltant le patriotisme et le confucianisme aux d�pens des religions d'importation �trang�re ; le Van Te Nghia Si Can Giuoc (Oraison fun�bre en l'honneur des r�sistants sacrifi�s � Can Giuoc) et le Van Te Truong C�ng Dinh (Oraison fun�bre en l'honneur de Truong C�ng Dinh) o� Nguy�n Dinh Chieu pleure la mort des gu�rilleros de C�n Giu�c et celle du prestigieux chef de la r�sistance.
Enfin, le d�but du XX� si�cle est marqu� pas l'installation de fa�on durable du r�gime colonial, par les changements dans les structures de la soci�t�, par la naissance d'une cat�gorie de collaborateurs : mandarins, fonctionnaires, bourgeois, notables� et aussi par une nouvelle orientation et de nouvelles formes du mouvement national. Pourtant, nombreux sont ceux qui, par esprit int�gre, refusent de travailler avec l'ennemi et se contentent de vivre dans la pauvret�. Conscients de leur impuissance, ils emploient souvent "l'humour satirique", arme propre aux faibles pour lutter contre des ennemis plus puissants. Mais, dans leurs oeuvres litt�raires, les rires, les ironies, les sarcasmes sont souvent m�l�s de tristesse et finissent parfois dans des sanglots larmoyants. Dans ce genre de litt�rature, il faut citer deux dignes repr�sentants : Nguy�n Khuy�n et Tran T� Xuong.
Nguy�n Khuy�n, illustre lettr�, trois fois Premier Laur�at des Concours triennaux (Tarn Nguy�n) et grand mandarin bien consid�r� au moment de la reddition de la Cour, pr�texte une maladie des yeux pour demander sa retraite anticip�e. Il a m�me refus� une nomination aux fonctions de Gouverneur de province propos�e par les autorit�s fran�aises. De retour dans son village natal, vivant sobrement, il commence � �crire des po�mes en chu n�m, s'inscrivant par l� dans la longue tradition de litt�rature populaire satirique. Son humour est plein de finesse, riche en allusions voil�es, mais ses critiques ne sont pas pour autant moins acerbes. Nguy�n Khuy�n �crit aussi des vers plus ou moins lyriques, o� il exprime son amour pour la nature, d�peint un paysage automnal ou le vol d'un oiseau migrateur dans les cieux, se recueille dans l��vocation d'anciennes amiti�s, et s'attendrit devant les mis�res des victimes des calamit�s naturelles. Son langage est sinc�re, raffin�, pittoresque, et du plus pur vietnamien. Souvent il s'apitoie sur lui-m�me : A quoi servent tous ses dipl�mes, ses connaissances, ses dignit�s mandarinales, quand il lui faut se r�signer � croiser les bras devant l'invasion de son pays par les �trangers, devant les mis�res et les souffrances de ses compatriotes?
Tran T� Xuong, plus connu sous le nom de Tu Xuong (Bachelier Xuong), est un po�te satirique tr�s populaire. Il a �chou� plusieurs fois aux Concours triennaux et, faute d'argent, n'a jamais eu acc�s � une nomination mandarinale. De ses �checs et de sa pauvret�, il garde un amer d�pit. Comme Nguy�n Khuy�n, il dirige ses pointes d'attaque contre les mandarins, fonctionnaires, bourgeois, serviteurs des conqu�rants... Tr�s vite, ses vers sont connus de la population et colport�s � travers tout le pays. Si Nguy�n Khuy�n est tout en finesse, voil�, implicite, Tran T� Xuong s'adonne aux images crues, aux tournures violentes et m�me � la grivoiserie. Quand, dans quelques rares po�mes, il d�die ses vers � Phan Boi Ch�u, r�volutionnaire pour qui il a une grande admiration, son ton devient plus grave et empli de tendresse. Tran T� Xuong n'�crit pas en chu nho, mais seulement en chu n�m. Son langage est populaire - c'est le parler du peuple de tous les jours � exempt de toute allusion litt�raire ou mythologique.
Nguy�n Khuy�n et Tr�n T� Xuong sont les po�tes de la derni�re �tape de la litt�rature en chu n�m. Bient�t une nouvelle g�n�ration, form�e � l'�cole occidentale, prendra le relais des lettr�s de culture chinoise.
Bilan
En somme, l'�volution du chu n�m, avec laquelle s'identifie celle de la langue vietnamienne, a dur� plus de quatre cents ans. Et � partir du XVIII� si�cle, de nombreuses oeuvres litt�raires �crites en chu n�m "moderne" arrivent � s'imposer non seulement dans la masse populaire mais aussi chez les lettr�s. La cr�ation du chu n�m est l'oeuvre d'initiatives individuelles, motiv�es par le besoin incessant de l'homme vietnamien d'ext�rioriser, de fixer par �crit ses sentiments intimes, et par l'aspiration du peuple vietnamien � parachever son ind�pendence. C'est la r�action de toute une nation face � la domination culturelle �trang�re. Ainsi le chu n�m a-t-il connu un grand essor chaque fois que survient un mouvement national de grande ampleur.
Au XIV� si�cle, alors que le pays vit ses plus beaux jours d'ind�pendance, le roi Tran Anh T�ng rappelle aux responsables de la diffusion des Ordonnances Royales et des papiers administratifs qu'il faut traduire ces documents en chu n�m pour permettre � la population de comprendre leur contenu. H� Qui Ly (1400-1407), un roi jaloux de l�ind�pendance culturelle de son pays, fait traduire quelques classiques confuc�ens en chu n�m et d�cr�tc l'usage de cette nouvelle �criture dans les courriers administratifs. Nguy�n Hu� (1788-1792), apr�s avoir repouss� 1�invasion chinoise, d�cr�te � son tour l'usage du chu n�m dans l'administration et dans les concours triennaux. Puis, � la fin du XIX� si�cle, au moment le plus critique de l�histoire Nguy�n Truong T�, un lettr�, ancien �tudiant � Rome et � Pans, n'adresse pas moins de quinze placets au roi Tu Duc pour une r�forme radicale du pays, dont celui de 1867 propose le remplacement des caract�res chinois par le chu n�m, la r�novation et l'unification de cette �criture, la publication de dictionnaires en chu n�m � l'usage de l'admimstration et des �coles, afin que tout le monde dans le pays �crive et lise de la m�me fa�on. Tu Duc se laisse d'abord s�duire, mais l'occupation progressive du pays par les Fran�ais, le conservatisme fanatique de la Cour finissent par le convaincre de rejeter ces propositions.
Du chu n�m au chu qu�c ngu
Nous avons pass� en revue les noms des plus grands auteurs de la litt�rature en chu n�m. Ceux-ci sont d�cid�ment bien nombreux dans notre panth�on vietnamien. Mais ce que l'on oublie souvent, c'est que leurs oeuvres sont toutes �crites en chu n�m. Autrement dit, c'est gr�ce � cette �criture que le peuple vietnamien a pu produire de magnifiques oeuvres litt�raires: depuis les romans en vers de Nguy�n Du, de Nguy�n Huy Tu, les complaintes de Chinh Phu Ng�m et Cung Oan Ng�m Khuc jusqu'aux po�sies de Nguy�n Cong Tru, Cao Ba Quat, H� Xu�n Huong, B� Huy�n Thanh Quan, Nguy�n Khuy�n, Tr�n T� Xuong, pour ne citer que les plus connues. Toutefois, aujourd'hui, comme peu de personnes peuvent d�chiffrer cette �criture, on est oblig� de transcrire ces oeuvres en chu quoc ngu pour les r��diter � l'usage des �coles, des biblioth�ques, etc...
Comme le Vietnam, plusieurs pays, ayant subi pendant de nombreux si�cles l�influence culturelle de la Chine, ont adopt� son �criture non seulement pour transcrire les mots d'importation chinoise, mais aussi pour �crire leur propre langue, il en est r�sult� des syst�mes composites, plus ou moins durables : le japonais m�le des signes syllabiques (kano) et des caract�res chinois ; le cor�en, � l'heure actuelle, dispose d'un syst�me alphab�tique non ph�nicien, mais ces deux langues font encore un large usage des caract�res chinois, notamment dans les oeuvres philosophiques, litt�raires et techniques... Seul le vietnamien s'�crit uniquement au moyen de l'alphabet latin.
A partir de 1917, de l'�criture n�m, syst�me de notation des mots, nous sommes pass�s � l��criture qu�c ngu, syst�me de notation des sons. Dans le syst�me de notation des mots, il y a autant de signes que de mots, cela suppose un stock condid�rable de signes, de caract�res; par cons�quent il faut une tr�s grande m�moire pour retenir un nombre suffisant de caract�res n�cessaires � la lecture. Alors qu'en notant seulement les �l�ments phon�tiques qui constituent les mots comme dans le qu�c ngu, par exemple, on obtient un mat�riel graphique beaucoup moins encombrant.
Les grands �crivains en chu n�m ont l�gu� une langue vietnamienne d�j� polic�e et raffin�e. Et puisque le chu qu�c ngu est un moyen de notation � la fois simple et facile � manier il a la facult� de transcrire fid�lement cette langue, permettant une expression plus ais�e des sentiments intimes de notre peuple, une diffusion plus large des id�es nouvelles import�es de l�Occident, contribuant par la suite au changement de l'homme et de la soci�t� vietnamienne dans les �tapes � venir.
Bibliographie
En fran�ais
Alleton, Viviane, L'Ecriture Chinoise, Pans, P.U.K, 1970.
Bui Quang Tung & Nguyen Huong, Le Dai Viet et ses voisins, Paris, L'Harmattan, 1990.
Higounet, Charles, L'Ecriture, Paris, P.U.F., 1955.
Le Th�nh Kh�i, Histoire du Vietnam, Paris, S.E.A., 1982.
En vietnamien
Buu Cam, Uu va khuyet diem cua Chu N�m, Khao Co T�p San, S�igon, 1960.
Dao Duy Anh, Chu N�m, Paris.S.E.A., 1979.
Duong Quang H�m, Viet Nam Van Hoc Su Yeu, Pans, A.S.E., 1986.
Nguyen Ta Nhi, �Loi d�nh d�u c� trong chu n�m�, Tap Chi Han N�m, so 1+2, Ha Noi, 1987.
Chu Nom, The Early Script of Vietnam
Historical Development
A Movement of Emancipation from Chinese Cultural Influence
Translated by Thomas D. Le
From the beginnings of its history until the present, Vietnam has known three kinds of writing systems:
1. The chu H�n or chu nho (the script of the Hans or script of scholars): This is the Chinese
writing system, which was imposed on the Vietnamese people by the Chinese conquerors as the official language.
The Chinese characters took on a Vietnamese pronunciation, based on the Chinese speech of the 10th century.
For almost nine centuries of independence between 938 and 1814, and even during to the first thirty years of
French domination (1884-1917), Vietnamese kings continued to adopt the chu nho as the official script.
2. The chu n�m (the Vietnamemse script, n�m = nam),called demotic script by some
authors, was the script of the people. Derived from the Chinese stock and principles of word formation, the
chu n�m was invented by scholars around the 13th century to reduce Vietnamese speech to writing.
3. The chu qu�c ngu (the national script), created by Western missionaries to preach
the Catholic religion to Vietnam during the 18th century, was a phonetic representation of Vietnamese speech
using the Latin alphabet. From 1917 on, with the encouragement of French authorities, the chu qu�c ngu
and Vietnamese ascended to their rightful place as the official script and language of Vietnam.
In contrast to the chu nho, which was used to write Chinese sentences, the chu n�m and the
chu qu�c ngu represented the speech of the Vietnamese people. From this fact one can conclude that
only the chu n�m and the chu qu�c ngu are the true national scripts. Indeed, according to a
widely accepted definition, "there must be a system of symbols for which the speech community established
meanings and usage in advance," and "which allow for the spoken language to be recorded." (J. F�vrier).
The origins of the Chu N�m: Chinese characters
To better understand the formation of the Chu N�m it is necessary to gain a general view
of the principles governing Chinese characters. Lexicographers divided Chinese characters into six classes
called liu shu or luc thu in Sino-Vietnamese. By the traditional theory, primitive elements were
made of images and symbols from which all the other classes are formed by composition or by derivation.
1. The pictographs (xiang xing, in SVN: tuong hinh)
represent objects. For example, the iconic characters shan and mu represent the mountain
and the tree.
2. The symbols (zhi shi, in SVN: chi su) represent abstract ideas and
actions. For example, the character shang (above, to ascend) is made up of a vertical stroke and an oblique
tick above a horizontal stroke, as opposed to the character xia (below, to descend), which is composed of
a vertical stroke and a oblique tick below the horizontal stroke.
3. The logical aggregate (hui y, in SVN: hoi y) is a combination
of two components contributing to the sense, to express a new idea. For example, the character ming
(to sing) is composed of niao (bird) and kou (mouth) : "bird" and "mouth" suggest the idea
of singing.
4. The phonograms (xieng sheng, in SVN: tuong thanh)
are formed from a phonetic element and another element that indicates the general class of objects or ideas to which the
word refers. The first element is then the "phonetic," and the second is the "key." For example, the character
ling (bell) is composed of the phonetic linh (to command) and of the key j�n (metal).
The phonetic gives the word its pronunciation linh while the key "metal" indicates the nature of the
bell, which is made of metal.
5. The translation of characters (jia jie, in SVN: chuyen chu).
This process derives a new character by adding, removing or displacing certain strokes in an existing character.
For example, to the character xi�o (small) a descending leftward stroke is added to generate another
character sh�o with the new meaning of "small in number, or provisional."
6. The false loans (j�� j��, in SVN: gia t�). These are
derived characters obtained by a modification of the pronunciation of existing characters. For example,
if the character xi�ng (appearance, air), pronounced with the 4th tone, is pronounced with the 1st tone,
the new character xi�ng means "mutually, reciprocally."
The rules of formation of the Chu N�m
From the Chinese elements and principles of word formation our scholars invented
the chu n�m with which to write the Vietnamese speech. Essentially they devised a phonetic representation
of the language by adopting the false loans and the phonograms.
A. The false loans (gia t�)
1. Transcription of Chinese borrowings
To transcribe Chinese loanwords (essentially religious, literary, administrative, technical terms...,
which abound in the Vietnamese lexicon), both the Chinese graphic representation and the Sino-Vietnamese
pronunciation are retained. For example, chu toa (to preside), dai l� (boulevard), minh bach
(clear), to�n hoc (mathematics).
2. Transcription of Vietnamese words proper
By and large, the Chinese written form is borrowed whole, if its pronunciation more or less
corresponds to a Vietnamese word regardless of meaning.
(a) Thus a Chinese word is borrowed for its sound to transcribe a Vietnamese homophone.
The Vietnamese pronunciation is actually the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of the Chinese loanword.
For example. the Chinese character chi (personal pronoun used as a direct object) is borrowed to transcribe
the Vietnamese chi (what); the Chinese character qua (an ancient weapon) to transcribe the
Vietnamese qua (to traverse).
(b) A Chinese character is borrowed to transcribe a near-homophonous Vietnamase word.
For example, the Chinese character bi�t (to separate) is borrowed to transcribe the Vietnamese bi�t
(to know), the Chinese character nu (a female, a woman) to transcribe the Vietnamese nua (more).
(c) A Chinese character is borrowed for its meaning to transcribe a Vietnamese synonym,
which retains its Vietnamese pronunciation. This amounts to saying the Chinese word in Vietnamese, by
the device of simultaneous translation (very much like the practice among the Japanese to read a Chinese
text while simultaneously rendering it in spoken Japanese).
For example, the Chinese character ky (a chair) is read as gh� in Vietnamese,
to mean 'a chair'. And the element of a Chinese character vi (to do) is spoken as làm
(to do) in Vietnamese.
B. The phonograms (h�i thanh)
We have seen above that characters of this class are composed of the phonetic element
and the semantic element. For example, the character c�t (sand) is transcribed by using two
Chinese characters, the phonetic c�t (propitious) and the semantic th� (earth). The phonetic
component c�t provides the pronunciation while the semantic 'earth' supplies the meaning, the
general class of object to which the word 'sand' refers.
C. The logical aggregates (h�i �)
These are characters made up of two components both of which contribute to the denotation.
For example, the character tr�m (chief) is a combination of the Chinese characters nh�n (a man)
and thuong (above). The 'man' and 'above' evoke the idea of the 'chief.'
It has been observed that among the extant texts and inscriptions in chu n�m,
semantic combinations are extremely rare. Finally, there are distinctive signs that are added alongside
a chu n�m character to advise the reader to modify the pronunciation so as to conform to the
tones and phonology of the Vietnamese language:
- either to the right of the character, such as the d�u c� (specific sign) written
as - or on the top left of the character, such as the sign
The chu n�m is created principally according to the gia ta principle, i.e., the principle of false
borrowing of homophones. Since there are many Vietnamese words for which Chinese homophones do
not exist, one had to resort to borrowings with a close pronunciation. The upshot
is that a chu n�m character may be pronounced in several ways, and several different characters may
have the same meaning. Often the Chinese character borrowed for its sound gives only an imperfect
phonetic rendering. Furthermore, abbreviations of characters prove difficult to interpret and sometimes a
word is written differently by different authors. There was no institution to standardize the writing of
chu n�m and allow Vietnamese to read and write it in the same way. Nevertheless from the
linguistic point of view, the chu n�m serves a useful purpose for the Vietnamese language. The
semantic elements called the 'keys' help to specify the meaning of homophones in quoc ngu. For
example, the sound sequence nam, spelled by three letters N-A-M in quoc ngu, may mean
'five' or 'year'; however, in chu n�m these are transcribed differently depending on the sense:
(1) the key ni�n, which means 'year' + the phonetic nam (nam),
(2) the key ngu, which signifies 'five' + the phonetic nam (nam).
It is easily seen that the first word 'nam' means 'year', and the second word means 'five'.
In numerous cases the chu n�m helps distinguish between the initials d (z) and gi,
ch and tr, and between the finals n and ng, c and t, etc.
History
In spite of the indifference, even the disdain, of scholars, after its birth sometime
in the fourteenth century, the chu n�m had gained a solid footing by the fifteenth century to finally
establish itself firmly in the national literature by the end of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The first manifestations of the chu n�m
We do not know precisely when the chu n�m was created. As material proof of its
earliest existence, one has often cited twenty or so n�m characters which represented names of
Vietnamese communities in a stele which was identified by H. Maspero (in B.E.F.E.O., tome XII, no. 1) as dating
to 1343 (under the reign de Tran Du T�ng), on Mount Duc Th�y (province of Ninh Binh). Actually no one
has found the stele, or the impression of its inscriptions.
In 1970, D�o Duy Anh announced the existence of another, more ancient stele, dating to 1210 (under the
reign of Ly Cao T�ng), at the Bao An pagoda in the village of Th�p Mi�u of the former province of
Ph�c Y�n (now Vinh Phuc), on which were inscribed 21 names of persons, of villages, of hamlets in chu n�m.
In addition, according to Kham Dinh Viet Su Thong Giam Cuong Muc (Annals of Vietnam), it was Nguy�n Thuy�n alias H�n
Thuy�n who, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, utilized this script for his literary works. Following
his example were two other scholars Nguy�n Si C� (second half of the 13th century) and Chu Van An
(14th century). Some novels in verse written in chu n�m were also attributed to the same epoch:
Tr� Coc (The Catfish and the Toad), Trinh Thu (The Virtuous Mouse). However, judging
from certain details of form, they seemed to have dated subsequently to the 14th century.
The Le dynasty and the literary development in chu n�m
It was only during the 15th century that chu n�m began to assert itself, notably with the
Hong Duc Quoc �m Thi Tap (Anthology of poetry in the national language in the Hong Duc period),
and the Quoc Am Thi Tap (Anthology of poetry in the national language)
by Nguy�n Trai. The latter is the oldest collection of poems in chu n�m that has been preserved.
Written in a simple and natural style, these poems manifested a profound love of country, a bitter disgust
toward the corruption rampant at the Court, and a strong attachment to a simple way of life away from
society. It was not until the 16th century that chu n�m made great strides both in form and in
substance. The greatest chu n�m poet of this period was Nguyen Binh Khiem. His collection
Bach Van Quoc Ngu Thi Tap (Poems in the national language by Bach Van) extols the virtue
of leisure, solitude, communion with nature, and confesses in more or less veiled terms his regrets for not
being able to serve his country better.
During the 18th century the literature in chu n�m continued to perfect itself,
and to develop in different genres: poetry, tales, and above all, novels in verse (truyen). In poetry
mention must be made of two women of great talent: Do�n Thi Di�m, author of Chinh Phu Ng�m
(Plaint of a Warrior's Wife), a famous translation into chu n�m of Dang Tran C�n's
oeuvre in Sino-Vietnamese; and Ho Xu�n Huong, who distinguished herself by the realism of her verses
that drip with sexuality, and evoke without varnish or vulgarity the secrets of the female body.
Next came the flowering of tales, fables, folksongs (ca dao), humorous
stories (chuyen ti�u l�m), anonymous works of satire and humor such as Trang Quynh
(History of Docteur Quynh), Trang Lon (History of Docteur Pig), Tu Xuat (History
of Bachelor Xu�t). Ba Giai (History of Mr. Ba Giai), which ridiculed the foibles of society as well
as the abuses in the competitive examination system of their time.
Dynastic transition and the apogee of the literature in chu n�m
However, the literature in chu n�m reached its pinnacle only with the novels
in verse of the end of the Le dynasty and the beginning of the Nguyen (end of the 18th to the beginning
of the 19th centuries). Among the most celebrated may be cited:
Hoa T��n (Flowery Letters) by Nguy�n Huy Tu, amelioriated by Nguy�n Thien; Kim Van Ki�u
(History of Kim, Van and Kieu) by Nguy�n Du ; Cung O�n Ng�m Kh�c (The Plaint of an Odalisque)
by Nguy�n Gia Thi�u; B�ch C�u Ky Ngo (Wonderful Encounter at B�ch Cau), anonymous; Phan Tran
(History of Phan and Tr�n), anonymous; Nhi Do Mai (The Twice-Blossoming Apricot), anonymous;
Luc V�n Ti�n (History of Luc Van Tien) by Nguy�n Dinh Chi�u, Thach Sanh
(Young Thach), anonymous; Nu Tu T�i (The Woman Bachelor), anonymous...
Beside Nguy�n Du's Kim Van Kieu pale all other literary oeuvres, be they
written in chu n�m or in quoc ngu. By the beauty of its verses, by its admirable knowledge
of human psychology, by its vivid and realistic depiction of the entire society, Kim Van Kieu has earned its place as
the favorite bedside storybook of the Vietnamese people. It is the culmination of a long evolution of the
national script of chu n�m, the synthesis of the simple six-eight prosodic meter of the folksong and
the more sophisticated form already seen in Chinh Phu Ng�m and in Hoa Tien..
During the first half of the 19th century, the ca tr� (poem-song composed by the
scholars to be sung by professional female singers) was renovated and perfected by Nguyen Cong Tru
and Cao Ba Quat. Nguyen Cong Tru, man of action and poet, was under-appreciated by the Kings Minh
Menh and Thieu Tri. His checkered career in the mandarinate had seen moments of glory (as a minister,
then a general) followed by humiliating demotions (to a private sent to a frontier outpost). Thus his
poems, especially in his ca tr�, reflected a strange mixture of contradictory sentiments: an exaltation
of extraordinary exploits of heroes alongside the aspiration for a withdrawal to the refuge of nature; a determination
to conform to the norms and exigencies of Confucian ethics side by side with the propensity toward the
enjoyment of life and its diversions and blessings. His language is simple, natural, flowing. His Sino-Vietnamese
expressions are always explicated by popular locutions from everyday language.
As a Confucian Nguyen Cong Tru made, through his poems, professions of loyalty to his
sovereigns inspite of their lack of appreciation. In contrast, Cao Ba Quat in the name of the same Confucian
ethos rebelled against the decadent monarchy of his time, intent on a complete makeover. He termed his
insurrection a "Thang Vo revolution" reusing the term by which the Chinese historian Tu Ma Thien
characterized the overthrow of King Kiet by King Thanh Thang and that of King Tru by King Vo Vuong. The
king is but a holder of the heavenly mandate, charged with the responsibility of insuring the well-being of
the people. Failure to accomplish this charge results in its being removed by the Celestial Emperor. The
term "cach menh" (literally to relieve one of a mission) means the cancellation of the Mandate of Heaven, and
is used today to translate the French word "revolution."
Cao Ba Quat was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the greatest poets of his time.
His poems reflected a sensibility toward the beauty of nature, and an awareness of the brevity of life and
mostly of the people's misery. He is the poet of libation. It was only wine that could disssipate his great
distress before the ineluctable misfortunes of life. His ca tru are of unrivalled purity and charm.
If Nguyen Cong Tru was credited with renovating the genre of ca tru, it is Cao Ba Quat who won
the glory of endowing the literature in chu n�m with ca tru creations of utmost perfection.
Another poetess in chu n�m of the nineteenth century, Ba Huyen Thanh Quan,
pseudonym of Nguyen Thi Hinh, owed her reputation as much to the purity and elegance of her verse, whose
quatrains were fashioned as perfectly as those of Tang poets, as to her ill-hidden sentiments: a vague
and discreet melancholy of loniless, poignant regrets for a glorious Le period.
The times of decline
In 1858 France decided to conquer Vietnam. In the face of superior modern weapons, the Court
at first adopted a policy of concession, only to end up with capitulation. But the Vietnamese people continued
to wage a bitter struggle that lasted forty years, led by scholars and Kings Ham Nghi, Thanh Thai and Duy Tan.
(who, after their failure, were deposed and banished by the French authorities). The resistance had almost
totally monopolized the chu n�m literature of the period. Writers did not seek art for art's sake: literature
was an instrument to appeal to patriotism and to struggle for the independence of the country. Standing above all
these known and unknown authors was the dominant stature of Nguyen Dinh Chieu.
A Southerner by birth, Nguyen Dinh Chieu had witnessed from the beginning of the hostilities
until his death in 1888 all the painful events that wrecked his country. He was the epitome of a scholar who
dedicated his life to the defense of his country in danger and of the Way of the Sage, which was the fundamental
principle of his life. Among his works in chu n�m the most important are: Luc Van Ti�n
(History of Luc Van Tien), a novel in verse in which the hero stood firm on his Confucian principles
against the vicissitudes of life; Duong Tu Ha Mau, a long poem that extols patriotism and Confucianism
over the religions of foreign origin. In Van Te Nghia Si Can Giuoc (Funeral Oration in honor of the
resistance fighters of Can Giuoc) and in Van Te Truong C�ng Dinh (Eulogy of Truong C�ng Dinh)
Nguyen Dinh Chieu paid tribute to the Can Giuoc resistance fighters and the prestigious resistance
leader.
The dawn of the twentieth century was marked by the firm implantation of the colonial
regime, by changes in the social structure, by the emergence of a new class of collaborators such as mandarins,
civil servants, bourgeois, notables,... as well as by a new direction and new forms of national life. Still,
numerous were those who, by virtue of their integrity, had refused to collaborate with the enemy, and had
chosen a life of want. Realizing their impotence, they often resorted to satirical humor, which is a weapon
suited to the weak in their struggle against a superior enemy. However, the laughs, ironies and sarcasms of
their works were tinged with sadness, and ended up in tearful sobs. This form of literature was well represented
by two notable authors: Nguyen Khuyen and Tran Te Xuong.
The illustrious Nguyen Khuyen was three times Honor Laureate in the triennial contests
and a highly respected mandarin at the time of the Court's surrender. Under the pretext of an eye disease, he requested
a much anticipated retirement. He had even declined a nomination to the post of province governor initiated
by the French authorities. Living frugally in his native village, he began to write poems in chu n�m
thereby following the long tradition of satirical popular literature. Though his humor was full of subtleties and rich in
veiled allusions, his criticisms were no less acerbic. Nguyen Khuyen also wrote lyrical verse, in which he
exhibited love of nature in the portrayal of an autumn scene or the flight of a migratory bird, meditated upon
old friendships, and suffered before the misery of victims of natural disasters. His language is sincere,
refined, picturesque and of the highest purity. Often he indulged in self-pity. What was the use of all
his diplomas, his knowledge and professional honors when all he could do was sit idly by while his country
was invaded by foreigners and his people suffered grievously?
Tran Te Xuong, also known as Tu Xuong (Bachelier Xuong), is a very
popular satirical poet. He failed several times at the triennial examinations, and for want of money, he was
never able to secure a nomination to the mandarinate. His failures and poverty left him a very bitter man.
Like Nguyen Khuyen, he directed his attacks on the mandarins, civil servants, bourgeois, the conquerors'
domestics. His poetry spread like wildfire throughout the country. If Nguyen Khuyen is subtle, veiled,
implicit, Tran Te Xuong revels in crude images, violent turns of phrase, even indecorum. However, when he
dedicated his rare poems to Phan Boi Chau, a revolutionary for whom he had great admiration, his tone became
serious and filled with tenderness. Tran Te Xuong did not write in chu nho (Sino-Vietnamese). His
language is the vernacular, the everyday language of the people, devoid of literary or mythological
allusions.
Nguyen Khuyen and Tran Te Xuong are the last poets of the period of the chu n�m
literature. Soon a new generation, schooled in Western ways, would pick up the torch from the scholars
of Chinese culture.
Summary
In sum, the evolution of chu n�m, with which the Vietnamese language identifies itself,
lasted four hundred years. From the 18th century on numerous literary works written in "modern" chu n�m
gained solid recognition not only among the masses but among the scholars as well. The creation of the
chu n�m was initiated by the effort of individuals, who were motivated by the constant need of Vietnamese
men to express themselves, and to confide on paper their intimate sentiments, and by the desire of the Vietnamese
people to complete its independence. It is the reaction of an entire nation against foreign cultural domination.
Thus the chu n�m had achieved great strides every time a broad-based movement swept the country.
In the 14th century, when the country enjoyed the blissful days of independence, King
Tran Anh Tong reminded officials responsible for disseminating royal ordinances and administrative
documents to translate them into chu n�m to allow the people to understand their content.
Ho Qui Ly (1400-1407), a king keenly jealous of the cultural independence of his country, had several
volumes of Confucian literature translated into chu n�m and encouraged the use of the new script
in official communications. Nguy�n Hu� (1788-1792), after repelling a Chinese invasion, decreed that the chu n�m
should be the language of administration as well as of the triennial examinations. At the end of the nineteenth
century, a critical moment in our history, the scholar Nguyen Truong To, former student in Rome and Paris,
addressed no fewer than fifteen petitions to King Tu Duc asking for a radical reform of the country, of
which the petition of 1867 proposed the replacement of Chinese characters by chu n�m. Among
others the petitions called for the renovation and standardization of this writing system, for the publication
of a dictionary of chu n�m to be used by the administration and in schools, so that everybody could
read and write in the same way. At first Tu Duc loved the idea, but the gradually spreading occupation of the
country by the French and the fanatic conservatism of his Court finally persuaded him to reject the proposals.
From chu n�m to chu qu�c ngu
We have reviewed the names of the greatest authors in chu n�m literature. And they
decidedly form a large part of the Vietnamese pantheon. They wrote their works in chu n�m, and
thanks to this script Vietnamese were able to produce a remarkable national literature, from the novels in verse by
Nguyen Du and Nguyen Huy Tu, through the plaints of Chinh Phu Ngam and Cung Oan Ngam Khuc, to the
the poems of Nguyen Cong Tru, Cao Ba Quat, Ho Xuan Huong, Ba Huyen Thanh Quan, Nguyen Khuyen,
Tran Te Xuong, to cite only a few. Today since few people know how to decipher this script, the above
works had to be transcribed into chu quoc ngu for use in libraries and schools.
Like Vietnam, countries under the cultural influence of China for centuries have
adopted their own scripts, not only to transcribe Chinese loanwords, but also to reduce their
national language to writing. Their effort resulted in composite systems that are more or less long-lasting.
The Japanese devised a mixed system of syllabic symbols (kano) and Chinese characters; the Koreans nowadays
have acquired a non-Phoenician alphabet. Still these scripts retain a large number of Chinese characters,
especially in philosophical, literary and technical writings. Vietnamese alone has used nothing but the
Latin alphabet.
Starting from 1917, the word-based n�m writing system has given way to the phonetic
qu�c ngu. In the word-based writing system a considerable inventory of signs and characters is
necessary as there must be as many signs as there are words in the language. Consequently one is required
to have a very large memory to retain a sufficient amount of characters necessary for reading.
In contrast, a sound-based script such as the qu�c ngu is far less cumbersome.
The great writers in chu n�m have handed down a Vietnamese language already
polished and refined. Since the chu qu�c ngu is a system at once simple and easy to handle, it
has the ability to render the spoken language faithfully, thereby facilitating the expression of the people's
sentiments and a widespead dissemination of newly imported Western ideas that help to shape the
emergence of the new Vietnamese man and society in the periods to come.
Bibliography
In French
Alleton, Viviane, L'Ecriture Chinoise (The Chinese Script), Pans, P.U.K, 1970.
Bui Quang Tung & Nguyen Huong, Le Dai Viet et ses voisins
(The Dai Viet and its Neighbors), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1990.
Higounet, Charles, L'Ecriture (The Writing System), Paris, P.U.F., 1955.
Le Th�nh Kh�i, Histoire du Vietnam (A History of Vietnam), Paris, S.E.A., 1982.
In Vietnamese
Buu Cam, Uu va khuyet diem cua Chu N�m (The Strengths and Weaknesses
of the Chu Nom), Khao Co T�p San (Review of Archaelogy), S�igon, 1960.
Dao Duy Anh, Chu N�m, Paris.S.E.A., 1979.
Duong Quang H�m, Viet Nam Van Hoc Su Yeu (A Short History of
Vietnamese Literature), Pans, A.S.E., 1986.
Nguyen Ta Nhi, �Loi d�nh d�u c� trong chu n�m� (The Dau Ca Sign
in Chu Nom), Tap Chi Han N�m (The Chinese-Nom Journal), so 1+2, Ha Noi, 1987.
Võ Thu Tinh
or as , and the
d�u nh�p nh�y (blinking sign) .
The latter, invented after the d�u c�, is found only among the chu n�m texts and inscriptions
of the second half of the nineteenth century.
, which is
a reduced form of the character kh�u used as a diacritic and devoid of semantic content.